BUDDHISM

Buddhism and Critical Thinking: by Roger Nault, Lecturer of Critical Thinking, RUPP, IFL, Department of English MA Development Studies, RUPP (2010) BBA (Honours), Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Canada (1987) E-mail: rognault@gmail.com ___________________________________________________________________________ This is an excerpt from my Master’s thesis entitled Critical Thinking for Restoration & Development: Working with the Cambodian Higher Education System, MA Development Studies, Royal University of Phnom Penh, March 2010, a full copy of which can be accessed at www.ilearnincambodia.net ___________________________________________________________________________ This section will draw principles from the roots of Buddhist teachings as noted by the literature which will then be synthesized with the concepts of CT as advanced by contemporary Western commentators. The following three assertions will be supported: firstly, the Buddha was the original critical thinker motivated at least in part for his dissatisfaction with the status quo of his day; next, the Kalama Sutta is a succinct assertion of what is today called CT and was delivered in a learner-centric way emphasizing the use of what is today called Socratic questioning; thirdly, efforts by the ‘modernist’ factions of the Cambodian sangha sought to restore the original authentic rational teachings of the Buddha by promoting new pedagogies which are consistent with CT. 2.2.1 The Buddha was the original critical thinker A rigorous literature review within the realm of critical thinking failed to uncover what a coincident and reflective study of Buddhist philosophy did. Although overlooked by many Western researchers and contemporary critical thinking commentators, such as the non-profit educational reform organization, The Center for Critical Thinking, who tend to emphasize the important contributions of the early Greek philosophers such as Socrates (469-399 BCE) and Plato (427-347 BCE), in the context of education in Cambodia and in fact much of Asia, it is essential to underscore that the Buddha (563-483 BCE) himself was the earliest known practitioner of CT. The reasons for the West's omission is less of an issue in this paper but could be due to simple cultural bias or because the Buddha's work is considered to be solely applicable within the domain of spirituality whereas the work of the Greek philosophers would ultimately be applied to the development of the objective, quantitative sciences. Here, the most salient point is that the omission or simple oversight makes it no less true that the Buddha was the © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 1 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking original critical thinker. Establishing this is of paramount importance in order to clearly establish that an embrace of critical thinking is consistent with cultural restoration and not the submission to, yet another, imported Western idea. Notwithstanding the above, by looking at Western writing interpreting the Buddha's message, the direct link to CT and the Buddha are made. To appeal to the ear of the Western reader, Armstrong (2000) draws a parallel with the later Socrates, to whom the contemporaries attribute CT. She explains that for a Westerner to understand the Buddha and his Teachings: One need only think of Socrates, who was never content to accept traditional certainties as final, however august they might be. He believed that instead of receiving knowledge from outside, like the sruti Vedas [inspired texts interpreted by the Brahmins], each person must find the truth within his own being (p. 16). Beyond establishing the link between the messages of the Buddha and Socrates, this passage also emphasizes the central position of the self in determining the truth and as further passages will also suggest, the Buddha rejected unquestioned or blind belief in traditions that to quite an extent define any society’s status quo. Armstrong traces the development of Buddhism during the Axial Age (800 – 200 BCE) describing it as a response to the dissatisfaction with the non-rational beliefs and behaviours promoted by the brahmins that had ridden chaos and dukkha (often simplistically translated to mean ‘pain’ or ‘suffering’; but also includes notions of ‘imperfection’, ‘impermanence’, ‘emptiness’, ‘insubstantiality’ and others (Rahula, 1959/1990, p. 17)) in the society of his day. In the introduction to The Venerable Kong Chhean’s translation of Oknha Sotann Preychea Ind’s Gatiloke as retold by Carrison, she describes the Buddha’s dissatisfaction with the status quo of the his day as well as the central role of the rational self: In many ways, Buddhism was a social protest movement against the Hindu caste system with its superstitious obedience to the Brahmans and its bloody sacrifices of humans and animals. In his sermons about the right way to live, Buddha refuted the caste systems, claiming that all people were equal and that governments should be democratic and just. Buddha preached that there are no superhuman gods or kings, that man is his own master, and that no higher deity sits in judgment over his destiny. He spoke out against human and animal sacrifices, superstition, and belief in magical ceremonies. Everyone was responsible to think for himself, using reason and logic to make wise and compassionate judgments [italics added]. ... in Buddhism, the emphasis is upon individual self-reliance: observing, knowing, understanding and doing (Carrison, 1987, p. 13). 2.2.2 Kalama Sutta © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 2 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking The following is the Kalama Sutta which is considered to be the Buddha's most explicit expression of the importance of CT [comments are added by this author to identify the logical fallacy being cautioned against]: Do not believe in anything simply because you have heard it. [Hearsay / Hasty Generalization] Do not believe in traditions because they have been handed down for many generations. [Appeal to Tradition] Do not believe in anything because it is spoken and rumored by many. [Appeal to Popularity] Do not believe in anything simply because it is found written in your religious books. [Appeal to Tradition or Inappropriate Authority] Do not believe in anything merely on the authority of your teachers and elders. [Appeal to Inappropriate authority or to Tradition] But after observation and analysis when you find that anything agrees with reason and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live up to it (Dhammayietrra Center for Peace and Nonviolence, as cited in O'Leary & Meas Nee, 2001, p. i) [Boss, 2001, pp. 57-67]. Within the realm of explaining Buddhist philosophy Armstrong (2000) interprets the Kalama Sutta in a way that echoes what is considered today to by the concept of CT. He [the Buddha] always refused to take anything on trust, and later, when he had his own sangha, he insistently warned his disciples not to take anything on hearsay. They must not swallow everything that their teacher told them uncritically, but test the dhamma at every point, making sure that it resonated with their own experience (p.43). In spite of being developed in apparent isolation from the teachings of the Buddha, Western CT theories have evolved to independently develop a series of logical fallacies that can be applied to each of the cautions (“Do not believe ...”) contained in the almost 2,500 year old Kalama Sutta. This overlap continues as we consider the Kalama Sutta beyond its cautions. The Kalama Sutta calls for “... observation and analysis ... agrees with reason” which is the same call by contemporary CT theorists Paul and Scriven cited earlier. Further the morality check offered by the Kalama Sutta “... is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all ...” not only overlaps with the work by Paul (1990) regarding weak versus strong sense of CT (in Binker, p. 52), but also echoes Todaro and Smith’s (2006) definition of development which focuses on the benefit of the broadest segments of the population (p. 810). Further, regarding Paul’s definitions of weak and strong senses, Armstrong (2000) explains that according to Buddhism, blind faith, or the acceptance of something without careful observation and analysis of reason, is “unskilled” (p. 105). Finally, the last call in the Kalama Sutta, that to “... accept it and live up to it”, is similar to what CT theorists say is the outcome © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 3 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking of the CT process and that is appropriate action or behaviour that reflects disciplined critical thinking. The Buddha used CT not only to achieve his own Enlightenment, but he used what is currently described as Socratic Questioning to press his followers to understand, experience and practice critical thinking in not only their own spiritual journey but also as a means for solving the daily problems of the laity ‘householders’. 'Come Kalamans,' he [the Buddha] said, 'do not be satisfied with hearsay or taking truth on trust.' People must make up their own minds on morality. . . . Step by step he asked the Kalamans to draw upon their own experience and perceive the effect of the 'three fires' of greed, hatred and ignorance [italics added] (Armstrong, 2000, p. 135). As suggested in the above passage from Armstrong, Rahula (1959/1990) also describes how the Buddha used a learner-centered teaching style to guide the learner to discover the answer, The Buddha was not a computing machine giving answers to whatever questions were put to him ... He was a practical teacher ... He did not answer questions to show his knowledge and intelligence, but to help the questioner on the way to realization [italics added] (p. 63). Other Buddhologists explaining the nature of Buddhism also make the direct link between Buddhism and rational or critical thinking: Buddhism was conceived as a rational way of thought, being entirely in accordance with the latest findings of the natural sciences. In contrast with Christianity, Buddhism was not based on 'dogmas of blind belief' and revelation, but on rational thought and experiential examination (Baumann, M., 2001). It is noted that the Bhikkhu Bodhi in his essay A look at the Kalama Sutta (n.d.), which examines the greater context in which the Buddha offered the Kalama Sutta, cautions against any interpretations that place Buddhism too squarely within the realm of natural science. Notwithstanding this important point, commentators including Bhikkhu Bodhi, draw a distinction between the blind belief inherent in other world religions (Armstrong, 2000, p. 43 ; Carrison, 1987, p. 13; Rahula, 1959/1990, p. 8) and noting the emphasis that Buddhism places on the experiential and on rational thought. In summary from the above passages, just as CT, HE and development strive to improve on the current socio-economic status quo, the Buddha’s journey to Enlightenment was at least in part driven by his rejection of the status quo and Brahmanist practices which promoted the mindless repetition of what had become the tradition of his day. He rejected as irrational, all hierarchy including a divine and divine-king and all magic and superstition. For the Buddha and his adherents all things would need to be considered experientially and rationally before © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 4 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking they could be accepted and even then, a final test was required, the outcome must be fair not only for the self, but for the many. In this endeavor he left his followers in the central position, in charge of their own journey towards the truth. Moving forward, following a brief introduction, several passages will explain how efforts by important factions of the Cambodian sangha sought to restore the original rational teachings of the Buddha by stripping it of its magico-religious practices in the late-nineteenth century and much of the twentieth. Integral in the same passages are specific references to revised pedagogical methods meant to ensure a more deep understanding of Buddha’s teachings by the sangha. This author suggests that the same methods and ultimate objective are consistent with that of CT and offer a better understanding of what Buddhism really says about how education happens. Ayres (2003) specifically traces the, post mid-1800’s Cambodian education system while others such as Chandler (1983, 1991) comment on it within a larger political-socio-historical context. Throughout, there are two dominant themes. The first describes the Buddhist pagoda as the only source of formal education, pre-colonization. The second is that this Buddhist education system emphasized rote-learning. One need only stand outside a Cambodian public school today to hear that rote-learning remains dominant, and while it may be tempting to assume or project rote-learning as inherent to Buddhism, to do so would be to commit a fallacy of questionable cause. The prevalence of Buddhist pagoda and rote-learning in early Cambodia speaks only to the practicality of how learning was happening given the resources of the day, but it does not speak to what Buddhism says about learning, or the respective roles of the teacher and student. In these more important matters, it is clear that Buddhism puts the student in the central position, imploring him or her to approach education, and all matters of daily life with what is today called critical thinking. The University of Michigan in the United States conducts research on education in various parts of the world and quotes Graef (1998) commenting specifically about the relationship between Buddhism and pedagogy: Buddhist views on education are very similar to the constructivist theory of learning. For example, a general Buddhist philosophy is that there is no teaching – it is the student's mind which is important. Essentially, Buddhism uses a student-centered learning approach when it comes to learning. 2.2.3 Cambodian ‘modernist’ Buddhism Cambodian king, King Ang Duong (r. 1845-1859) is credited with initiating the renaissance of Khmer Buddhism by replenishing the Kingdom’s collection of lost or destroyed Dhamma texts (Hansen, 2007, p. 79). While Ind and the Venerable Lvī-Em are © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 5 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking credited for laying much of the foundation for what would become the Cambodian modernist (alternatively “Thommakay” or “new Mahanikay” (mohanikay tmae), Harris, 2005, p. 115) approach to understanding Buddhism, the Venerable Chuon Nath and Venerable Huot Tath working with the blessings of King Sisowath (r. 1904-1927) but at other times in virtual clandestinity are continuously depicted by the cited authors as the primary proponents of the movement. Ven. Huot Tath (1891-1975) writing on the origins of Khmer Buddhism in his abbreviated account of Buddhism in Kampuchea (1961) is possibly explaining the evolved status of Buddhism that he, the Ven. Chuon Nath and others were responding to in the early 1900’s: ... Buddhism has been subject to continual adaptation, depending on the power and influence of its adherents, which in turn has depended on the particular period of history (as cited in Hansen, 2007, p. 180). It is intuitive that Buddhism as practiced in Cambodia in the early 1900’s was markedly different from its 2,500 year old origins, just as it is that Buddhism as practiced in Sri Lanka or any other country would be. The same time has also allowed each world religion to evolve as well. In the context of Cambodia it is said that the society subscribes “to overlapping and layered sets of beliefs, incorporating, in the Khmer population, Buddhism, animism and Brahmanism” (Edwards in Kent & Chandler, 2008, p. 214). As the next passage from Hansen explains, the Ven. Chuon Nath and Ven. Huot Tath were responding to the evolution of Buddhism in Cambodia as they saw it from Wat Unnalom circa 1915. Their concerns, objectives and rationale for the modernist movement are offered: As their new Buddhist interpretations developed, Ven. Chuon Nath and Ven. Huot Tath came to champion the understanding and practice of a rationalistic, scripturalist, demythologized religion, similar in many respects to the reformed Buddhism of Mongkut [Thai King, Rama IV]. Their approach emphasized the importance of Pali study, and particularly of the Vinaya [monastic code]. Their rationalized interpretations, like Mongkut’s, also deemphasized the role of cosmological texts and particularly of the narrative accounts of the Buddha’s past lives depicted in the jātaka [stories of the Buddha’s past lives]. They reacted against the pedagogical tradition of rote memorization and recitation of texts, instead emphasizing the translation and interpretation of texts and sermons between Pali and the vernacular, so that both monks and laypersons not only took part in a performance of texts, but more important, understood the content of what was being read, preached, or recited (2007, p. 101). From this passage, it is clear that Ven. Chuon Nath and Ven. Huot Tath had sensed that Buddhism’s evolution in Cambodia had gone too far in their opinions, from its origins allowing too many irrational, non-Buddhist traditions and beliefs to accrete. It is ironic to note that although their rational Buddhism movement would become known as modernist, © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 6 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking what they were in fact doing was trying to return Cambodian Buddhism back to what they believed were the more authentic teachings of the Buddha. Their movement attempted to restore pure Buddhism by making it more rational and less mythological-magical and by emphasizing the importance of Monks to be able to correctly understand and explain the Buddha’s teachings rather than simply memorize or mimic the sounds only to be later recited or chanted. A separate, but similar interpretation of the Ven. Chuon Nath and Ven. Huot Tath’s concerns, objectives and rationale can be found in Satoru Kobayashi’s essay Reconstructing Buddhist temple buildings: An analysis of village Buddhism after the era of turmoil in Kent & Chandler (2008, Chapter 9). The modernists emphasized a deeper understanding of the Buddha’s teachings. This point is particularly important within the context of this piece, as the ability to recite can be related to “learning to know” which is a lower-level thinking skill, whereas “learning to understand or explain” requires higher order thinking skills, including CT. Hansen (2007) explains the relationship Cambodian society had with the Buddha’s teachings as inscribed on palm leaf until the early twentieth century: A prevailing view of texts [Buddhist Teachings inscribed on palm leaf] was of physically potent objects that affected the spiritual well-being of the individuals who handled them; their exact contents were of lesser importance. ... Being in physical contact or proximity with texts, touching them, seeing them, or bearing them, connected one with the Buddha and his teachings devotionally (p. 83). Without a secular education system, Buddhist texts represented the most important source of knowledge pre-colonization. To that extent, society’s relationship with the texts represents its relationship with knowledge. As indicated above, simply being in close proximity of a text was thought to offer greater merit than actually knowing what was written in them, let alone understanding their message and behaving accordingly. This representation of one’s relationship with knowledge is particularly profound. An analogy would be for a student today to strive to own a mathematics textbook and once attained to carry it with reverence to each class but not be concerned with ever opening or studying it. Having the ultimate benefit of the knowledge, rationality, understanding, wisdom and correspondingly, appropriate behaviour contained within the text was incorrectly understood to be achieved by merely being in close proximity to or by possessing a text. The modernists attempted to re-define the nature of knowledge and explain how it could be achieved. They also had the advantage of new technologies. The first Khmer script printing press was introduced in 1904. Initially use of the press was limited to the Royal court for the printing of sutras, laws and regulations (Jacobson, in Guthrie & Marston, 2004, p. 68), © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 7 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking however, as the work of Ven. Chuon Nath and Ven. Huot Tath developed into the 1920’s, additional presses were acquired for their "new styles of Buddhist writings – compendiums, critical translations and written versions of oral folklore" (Hansen, 2007, p.3). By translating the Tripitaka into vernacular Khmer as authorized in 1933 (Edwards, 2005, p. 25) and printing in on paper, the modernists were broadening access and emphasizing the importance of the words rather than the medium of sacred palm leaves. Up to that point the deep study of the Buddha’s teachings were restricted to the few within the sangha that could read Pali and had access to the palm-leaf inscribed texts. For most within the sangha, knowledge was achieved through rote-memorization which was simply pragmatic since they were effectively using a foreign language (Pali) and had no personal hard copy to study in depth. The development pursued by the modernists was regarded as a sea change and for political reasons the traditionalists consistently struggled to thwart the efforts of the modernists in an effort to maintain the status quo. “...Buddhist traditionalists opposed the influence of modern printing techniques on the grounds that they undermined the magico-religious character embodied in palm-leaf texts, which in any case, had rarely been read for their literary, didactic, or intellectual content. Indeed, many monks were rarely literate in that sense – their interest had been in the occult power of the word itself” (Harris, 2005, p.118). A thorough analysis of the reciprocal, mutually legitimizing relationship between the Cambodian royalty, regime leaders and the sangha and the resulting politicization of the sangha in the twentieth century is found in Seanglim Bit (1991), Harris (2005) and Hansen (2007) as well as in selected chapters of Kent and Chandler (2008), Chandler (1998), and Marston and Guthrie (2004) but is beyond the scope of this thesis. What are germane in this context are the objectives and strategies pursued by the modernists to achieve purification or restoration of a more rational form of Buddhism and make it available to the broadest segments of the population. The Venerable Lvī-Em’s sermon inaugurating the Buddhist Institute on May 12, 1930, interprets the process of deeper understanding with the goal of purification as the acquisition and practice of CT skills: The goal of [modernist] Buddhists was purification ... purification was to be achieved by bringing one’s moral conduct in line with the true teachings of the Dhamma-vinay. Purification raised questions of authenticity. To become pure necessitated developing the ability to distinguish between what was authentic and inauthentic Dhamma-vinay, the ability to recognize whether others truly knew the Dhamma-vinay or whether they did not, the ability to judge which behaviours were in line with the Dhamma-vinay and which were not. Implicit in this agenda was the perception that discerning the underlying nature and authenticity of persons, ideas, values, and © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 8 of 9 Buddhism and Critical Thinking © www.ilearnincambodia.net, Roger Nault Page 9 of 9 teachings was not obvious; it required education, awareness, mindfulness, and above all, knowledge of the world attainable only through correct grounding in the Dhamma-vinay. Although it required discipline, moral purification could be attained by ordinary people through rational means rather than in the elusive and mythological sense in which it attached to the bodhisattas” (Hansen, 2007, p.151). The Venerable Lvī-Em distinguishes between superficial knowledge as derived by initial perception from a deeper more meaningful knowledge which can only come from mindful and rational consideration. He also emphasizes behaviour as the ultimate indicator of the authentic self. This deeper consideration is consistent with what is the message from today’s CT theorists. The modernist movement as championed by the Ven. Chuon Nath and Ven. Huot Tath was an attempt to restore Cambodian Buddhism ridding it of surplus Brahmanist and animist practices which had accumulated over the years. Restoration entailed a more rational understanding of the Buddha’s authentic teachings which also required a re-definition of what knowledge was and how it could be achieved. It was the ability to read, reflect on, consider and evaluate that led to true understanding of the Buddha’s teachings that contained meritorious potency, not the unskilled possessing of a dutifully inscribed but unopened and unstudied palm-leaf inscribed physical text. The Venerable Chuon Nath and Venerable Huot Tath along with other modernists were dedicated to the restoration of rational Buddhism which sought to restore the skills that were formed in isolation, but are today called by contemporary Western CT theorists as critical thinking skills.